Country as a teacher: Perspectives from the San, Khoi Khoi, Hadza, Sandawe, Mbenga, Mbuti and Twa in land-based and green pedagogies

Debates about Country as teacher often draw on Indigenous scholarship from Australia and North America. African Indigenous societies also contribute to this discussion. Communities such as the San, Khoikhoi, Hadza, Sandawe, Mbenga, Mbuti and Twa show how knowledge can develop through sustained engagement with land, ecosystems and community life.

These societies provide examples of learning systems where landscapes, forests and ecological cycles shape knowledge and practice. Their experiences connect with discussions in higher education about land-based learning, green pedagogy and place-based education.

Land as a knowledge system

In many Indigenous African societies, land shapes identity, livelihood and social organisation. Learning occurs through everyday interaction with landscapes such as deserts, forests and savannahs.

Among the San of the Kalahari region, knowledge of animal behaviour, plants, water sources and seasonal patterns develops through tracking, observation and storytelling. Children and young people learn these skills by accompanying adults during hunting and gathering activities.

The Hadza of Tanzania learn about plants, wildlife and landscapes through daily subsistence activities such as gathering tubers, identifying edible plants and observing animal behaviour. Learning takes place in landscape settings through participation and practice.

The Sandawe maintain knowledge of hunting practices, plant use and seasonal changes in central Tanzania. This knowledge is transmitted through collective activities and oral traditions connected to particular environments. These examples show how learning can be grounded in direct engagement with ecosystems, which aligns with current discussions about land-based learning.

Forest knowledge and ecological learning

Forest-dwelling communities also show how land functions as a learning environment. Groups such as the Mbenga, Mbuti and Twa have knowledge systems closely connected to forest environments.

Within these communities, forests serve as places where children and young people learn about plant species, animals, medicinal resources and ecological cycles. Learning occurs through participation in gathering, hunting, fishing and other shared activities. Knowledge is transmitted through observation, imitation and guidance from elders and experienced community members.

These practices show how ecosystems can function as structured learning environments. They also connect with green pedagogies that promote learning in natural environments and encourage environmental responsibility.

Pastoral landscapes and environmental knowledge

The Khoikhoi developed knowledge systems linked to pastoral mobility and rangeland management in southern Africa. This knowledge includes seasonal movement patterns, grazing management, water source identification and livestock care suited to semi-arid environments. Such knowledge developed through long-term interaction with landscapes and environmental conditions. Learning occurred through participation in pastoral activities and through observation of seasonal patterns in the environment.

Contributions to the Country as teacher debate

The experiences of the San, Khoi Khoi, Hadza, Sandawe, Mbenga, Mbuti and Twa show several points that are relevant to discussions about Country as teacher.

• First, learning occurs through participation in everyday activities such as hunting, gathering and pastoral work.
• Second, ecosystems influence the type of knowledge that develops. Forests, deserts and savannahs each shape different forms of knowledge and practice.
• Third, knowledge transmission is collective. Elders and experienced community members play important roles in teaching younger generations.
• Fourth, environmental care is connected to everyday livelihood practices and resource use.

Implications for higher education

These experiences support efforts to include land-based learning in higher education. They show that landscapes and ecosystems can serve as learning environments and that ecological knowledge develops through observation, participation and reflection. Universities exploring Country-centred pedagogy can draw from these practices when developing outdoor learning activities, community-engaged teaching and environmental education programmes.

Conclusion

The experiences of the San, Khoi Khoi, Hadza, Sandawe, Mbenga, Mbuti and Twa show that land-centred learning traditions exist across different African environments. Their knowledge systems demonstrate how landscapes and ecosystems shape knowledge, skills and social values. Including these perspectives broadens discussions about Country as teacher and supports the development of land-based and environmentally grounded pedagogies in higher education.