Over 60 African research methods and techniques

What are the key elements of African research?
What are some of the methods useful and appropriate for African research?
Whose role is it to promote these methods?

There are several methods and techniques of research that are African because they existed in Africa before modern science or they were developed by Africans. Why do we rely on individual interviews, focus groups, key informant interviews and surveys all the time? The answer is that we often just use what is available in textbook or what authors have used or what we were taught at school. When you choose a method of research for African research, consider these issues:

Is the method appropriate to the population?
Is the method suitable for the problem or research gap being studied? Here remember that the definition of a problem, and the setting of research questions, must all be made appropriate. At times, what people outside African see as a problem, is not a problem in Africa. If you set a wrong question, then the research if flawed from the start.
Does the method align with African ethics? For example body mapping is a technique that involves touching and drawing human bodies during research, will this be appropriate in Africa?
Does the method reinforce colonial thinking and ways of doing?
Does the method promote African ways of thinking and doing?
Can the method be explained easily in local languages?
Is there local literature about the method? For example, if you have to rely on western books to understand a research method, then it is not suitable.
Can the method be implemented without expensive or inaccessible technology? If the method relies on technology which is not available, then it is not suitable.
Can a local person implement the method? If you are the only person who can implement the method, then it is not suitable. A non-professional, non-academic should be able the implement the method.
Because African research is decolonial, it is not useful to use a research methods because it is used in the profession, or it is used globally. African research values methods that have been neglected, marginalized, underutilized and devalued as a result of colonisation.

What are the key elements of African research?

It is founded on African philosophy, meaning African knowledge, values, ethics and principles are valued.
It is relational, meaning relations are valued. Nouns like research subjects do not apply and can not be used.
It is participatory, researcher works with people and people contribute at all stages of the research process.
It is collaborative meaning the researcher is not viewed as an expert but a collaborator in the process of knowledge production and use.
Decolonial, meaning it challenges western and other non-African methods that neglects, marginalize, underutilize and devalue African knowledges.
It is holistic, considers the environmental, spiritual, historical, political, social and other factors
It is humane – it values ethics and puts people at the centre of research.

What are some of the methods useful and appropriate for African research?

These methods are available, and some of them detailed here: https://africasocialwork.net/research/

Research designs

African research methodology (ARM) – valuing African techniques, activities etc. Read: Khupe, C. & Keane, M. (2017). Towards an African Education Research Methodology: Decolonising New Knowledge. Educational Research for Social Change. 6. 25-37.

Afrikology – Afrikology is a philosophy that also promotes balanced and sustained relationships with all relations including people of other cultures, the environment and the living and non-living. This design is credited to Nabudere (2011). According to Nabudere, no one culture has right to knowledge production – amagesi sigomu. This means western knowledge is not superior to all other knowledge. Colonisation resulted in devaluation of African knowledge, and this devalutaion continues today.

Indigenous research methodology (IRM) – valuing indigenous techniques, activities etc. Chilisa et al (2017) and have a very good example of IRM, the Indigenous Research Framework. Read:

Chilisa, B., Major, T. & Khudu-Petersen, K. (2017). Community engagement with a postcolonial, African-based relational paradigm. Qualitative Research. 17. (3), 326-339.
Chilisa, B. (2014). Indigenous research is a journey. The International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work, , no. 2, pp. 41-44.
Chilisa, B., Major, T. & Khudu-Petersen, K. (2017). Community engagement with a postcolonial, African-based relational paradigm. Qualitative Research. 17. (3), 326-339.

Broad research approaches

Ubuntu research approach (URA) – applying ubuntu principles when researching including using Ubuntu philosophy, knowledge, theories, ethics and techniques. For African research, this is the overarching approach. Other important issues in research driven by the Ubuntu philosophy include use of local languages in seeking consent, collecting data and communicating findings, using languages that people understand. Ubuntu-driven research values humane approaches and discourages cheating, deceit, harm, injustice, unfair compensation and disrespect. Ubuntu-driven research is ontologically relational, it is epistemologically co-creational, theoretically humane and methodologically collaborative (Mugumbate, 2020).

Community-centred approach – focus on families and communities instead of individuals.

Sankofa methodology – “It’s not taboo to go back to the source and fetch what you forgot” (Bangura, p. 175). Sankofa is about learning from the past, the past meaning African culture, history, philosophies and identity. In order to “move forward into the future, they need to reach back into their past and take with them all that works and is positive” (p. 175). Read: Bangura, A. K. (2011). African-Centered Research Methodologies: From Ancient Times to the Present. San Diego: Cognella.

Collective research approach – researching with people and communities and not researching them. This includes planning the research together (co-planning), co-analysis and co-publishing.

Cultural safety approach (CSA) – research that do not devalue people’s cultures.

African-centred or Afrocentric research – this is research that address the needs, problems, aspirations and research questions of Africa and not those perceived by people from outside the continent (Bangura, 2011).

Empowerment or capability research approach – acknowledging power and capacity in people and building the capacity of communities to research themselves instead of being researched by outsiders.

Responsible research approach (RRA) – no researching and over researching the poor, powerless and vulnerable in society but researching those with power and authority.

Developmental research (DR) – research that has an intention of improving the lives of people or community in the short and long term or research that has an immediate impact on the problems or challenges communities are currently facing. This is different from research that is done for the benefit of the researcher or funder or another community.

Household, Family of Community Oriented Research (HOFACOR) – doing research that does not have individuals as units of analysis but rather households, families and community. This aligns with Ubuntu values of seeing the individual through their family or community. This research avoids individuality.

Participatory Action Research (PAR) – Participatory research as “an emancipatory approach to knowledge production and utilization” (Mulenga, 1994:29). It is about involving households, families and communities (participants) in research that is part of their development. Participants identify and define the problem and contribute in ALL stages of the research process (Mulenga, 1994). Maguire and Mulenga (1994) said the main characteristics of participatory research are (1) involves the people themselves as researchers as they seek solutions to the problems which confront them in their daily struggle for survival (2) offers a way for researchers and oppressed people to join in solidarity and (3) to take collective action, both short and long term, for radical social change (4) It combines three activities, namely, research, education and action.

Relational research approach or paradigm: research that focuses on and values relationships or connections instead of looking at things and properties as existing in isolation (Chilisa, 2019). These will be relationships between people being studied but also between the people and the researcher.

Methods for ethical research

Decolonial Approach (DA) – taking an active role to remove colonial approaches, language etc. This approach argues that ethics are not one size fits all, western ethics are not all applicable in Africa and vice versa. Western ethics are based on western philosophy and African ethics should be based on African philosophy.

Local Ethics Approach (LEA) – use local ethics in all stages of the research process and getting local ethics approval including at family, community, Country and national level. This means that the researcher identifies ethical issues with their research communicate these at the levels their research qualifies together with a description of their research so that further ethical issues are identified. When all issues are ironed out, ethics approval is then provided. This is not the same as permission or consent.

The total agreement technique (TTAT) – this technique ensures that all people in the research are in agreement with what has been proposed and what will be done as follows (1) permission to do the researcher or to be involved or associated has been granted by all those responsible, not just the university or organisation (2) ethics have been noted, discussed, resolved and agreed (3) consent from participants has been obtained in the preferred way – verbal, witnessed or written (4) agreement on data, results and what has to be published and how

Non-verbal consent (NVC) – consent does not need to be written, writing down and issuing forms is intimidating and takes away continuous negotiation which is valued in African society. Ethics do not exist on forms, it is human beings that should be ethical. Alternative forms or NVCs include oral consent where someone says they are giving consent or witnessed consent, where they say it in the presence or one or more people.

Local language approach (LLA) – use local languages in all stages of the research process and not using language participants do not understand

Munyai approach – when you approach communities, use an intermediary. The intermediary can be an individual, a community leader, an elder, a family, a griot or an organization.

The San Method – In the San Code of Ethics (South African San Institute (SAAI, 2017), community has a key role. The code emphasizes respect, honest, care, justice and co-production of knowledge. The San method says there should be clear communication in understandable not academic scientific language, show San people reports before publication, align your research to local needs, and not stealing knowledge.

Scared places and spaces approach – as a researcher know and respect spaces, places and artifacts of cultural and spiritual significance

Methods for data collection

Experiential method – using your own experience as a data source
Auto-ethnographic method – same as above.

Dare or Indaba method – sometimes called talking circles, this means collecting data from a medium sized group (dare, about 8 people) or large group (indaba, about 16 or more people. In a dare or indaba, people meet face to face or online. Each person has an equal chance to participate. Rounds vary, usually about four. This method values equality, respect, togetherness and collective knowledge building (Chilisa 2019). In other communities, a symbolic act, object, food or drink is used. For example, clapping hands before you speak, holding a walking stick before speaking, saying words of respect or praise titles/names before speaking, passing a cup with a drink or brew etc.

Baliano (plural is mabaliano) method – in this method, one person goes around seeking opinions from a selected category of people until consensus or agreement (baliano) is reached. More details available here https://africasocialwork.net/research/

Decolonised interviewing – Chilisa (2019) says this method is more collective and different from the western style of interviewing which is more individualistic. For example, a decolonial interview favours more than one interviewers and more than one participants in one interview. In the western style interview, there is no real conversation, everything is structured and the researcher is expected to be rigid. A decolonial approach values relationships (ukama) between those being researched, the researcher and those being researched and relationship to the environment of everyone involved in the research. In decolonial approaches, it is the ethics and aspirations of the people that matter, not that of the researcher.

Insider research method – a person who knows the community or respondents plans the research and collects data from them instead of a person who does not know about them

Side-by-side approach or collaborative research – this is about working side by side with participants to identify research gaps, creating methods and collecting data.

Narrative approach – participants are given a chance to narrate of tell their stories instead of being asked a series of questions (Chilisa, 2019).

Self-praise or self-poetry or praise poetry – These are songs, poems or compositions where an individual praise themselves, are praised by others or praise their family, tribe or community (Chilisa, 2019).

Griot approach – a griot is a historian, storyteller, praise singer, poet, or musician. He or she is an oral moving library. They can be a source of different information all useful for research (Bangura, 2011).

Community projects – designing a project that benefits the community while you research.

Stories Approach – participants are given a chance to narrate of tell their stories instead of being asked a series of question.

Dialogue Approach – conversation between the researcher and participant/s.

Action Research – research that contributes to development instantly.

Visual Methods – participants mould, curve, build, draw, photograph (take pictures), videograph (record videos) or describe what they saw or think.

Social Media Reactions (Sentiments) Approach – you create a research question then use reactions already existing on social media to answer the question. The reactions could include comments, likes, dislikes, shares etc

Mixed methods – at times a decision to mix methods is a good one. Methods can be mixed as follows (1) indigenous and non-indigenous – when you do this ensure that indigenous approaches get prominence (2) indigenous methods mixed together (2) qualitative and quantitative methods mixed. Chilisa and Tsheko (2014) in this journal article have a describe a good example of mixed methods that give indigenous approaches prominence.

Methods for literature review

Orature Approach (OA) – knowing that in Africa oral literature is the majority and using it in research including literature reviews and findings discussions (Chilisa, 2019).

Decolonising Literature Review (DLR) – a lot of literature exists that would not be accepted by the people who were researched for one or more reasons. We can use a review process to examine this literature and address its shortcomings. the process of DLR will be as follows (i) create criteria for literature you want reviewed (ii) read the literature with a selected group of people who are part of those the literature refers to (iii) report what was confirmed and what was rejected.

Decolonised Literature Approach (DLA) – the approach says if you use colonial literature to try to understand situations, then that is a flawed process. Read Chilisa, B., (2019), Decolonising research: An interview. The International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work, (1), 12-17.

Methods for data analysis

Side-by-side approach – working with participants to analyse data (co-analysis)

Researcher analysis – researchers do analysis themselves

Participant analysis – participants do the analysis themselves

Theory-building approach – this approach is about doing research with the intention of coming up with a theory. Sometimes called the grounded-theory approach.

Relational-collective-timed approach (RTCA) of data analysis – the steps for this approach are (1) During or immediately after data collection create initial set of points and add points from your research assistant or team members present during data collection (2) Soon after collecting data (within a week), read or listen to the data as a team and create a second set of points (do not revise initial points) (3) Within one month merge the points and come up with third set of points (4) Discuss the third points with all (if possible) or a few of research participants and come up with the fourth set or points (5) Report the fourth set or points as the results of the data collection and analysis. In the report include (i) points that were confirmed (ii) points that were not-confirmed (iii) points that were rejected. Cite ASWNet (2020).

In-situ primary analysis – doing analysis during data collection.

Primary analysis – doing data newly or recently collected (primary analysis)

Re-analysis – doing analysis on data that has already been analysed

Secondary analysis – doing analysis on existing literature or non-written sources of information

Manual analysis – basic (read or listen, understand or make sense and generate meanings) and advanced (read or listen, understand or make sense, arrange or color code, rearrange, create themes or categories, generate meaning). Reporting is usually narrative (words, sentences, paragraphs and stories), verbal or written.

Electronic or computer-aided analysis – basic (use applications/software like Word Processor and Spreadsheets) and advanced (use applications like NVivo, Strata, SPSS, Tableau, there are more than 500 apps). Applications can create narratives (sentences, paragraphs and stories); graphs, tables, charts, figures, illustrations or word clouds ; and frames (themes, categories or codes).

Content analysis – getting meanings out of the content of the data

Methodological analysis – getting meaning out of the methods used to collect data

Process analysis – getting meaning out of the process of doing the research

Thematic analysis – is where you allow themes to emerge from the data after reading, listening or engaging with the data adequately

Framework analysis – is where you create frames, rules or categories first, then read, listen or engage with data while placing related parts of data in frames

Methods for achieving ‘reliability’ and ‘validity’

Reviere’s African-centred procedure of achieving ‘validity’ or ‘reliability’

‘Validity’ and ‘reliability’ are western concepts. In African centred-research, they are acheived in several ways. Reviere’s African-centred procedure of achieving ‘validity’ or ‘reliability’ includes these has five elements (Reviere, 2001, p. 725):

Ukweli – truth
Utlulivu – justice
Uhaki – harmony
Ujarnaa – community
Kujitoa – commitment

Chilisa, B. (2014). Indigenous research is a journey. The International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work, , no. 2, pp. 41-44.

Reviere, R. (2001). Toward an Afrocentric research methodology. Journal of Black Studies, 31 (6), 709-727

Methods for discussion

After data has been collected, it is analysed then discussed. Methods of discussion include:

Data linkage – link data with existing literature

Sentiments linkage – link data with current sentiments expressed by policy makers, on social media, in community talks etc

Methods for research reporting and sharing

Side-by-side approach – working side-by-side with people to report and disseminate findings

Knowledge checking approach/Shared knowledge approach – share reports with knowledge holders, leaders or participants before publication

Methods for research utilisation

Participants-first approach – this means first sharing results with participants so that they make use of them instead of publishing first hoping that they will ready the publications. Sometimes called the localised reporting method.

Policy approach – this means taking results to policy makers or those implementing policy so that research could influence policy.

Benefits approach – do research that has immediate benefits for the community e.g. produces knowledge to address a current or emerging social problem.

Action Research – researching and using the results for developing the community or country at the same.

Teaching and learning approach (educational approach) – data is utilised to improve education

Practice approach – findings are used to improve practice

Action approach – findings are utilised to support action by communities, institutions or government

Methodological approach – findings are used to improve research methods

Decolonial approach – findings are used to support decolonisation

Skills approach – research is done to gain skills only, for example, for honours, masters or doctorate degree. However, this is a waste of resources, all research should have tangible utilisation.

Whose role is it to promote these methods?

Academics – lecturers, tutors, researchers and research supervisors whose role is to promote, defend, teach and use African research methods.
Information experts – librarians, whose responsibility is to ensure adequate African literature on research.
Administrators – Deans, Chairpersons of Departments whose role is to support the librarians and create policies that value African literature and methods.
Students – coursework and research students alike, including bachelors, masters and doctoral students
Organisations that fund or commission research whose role is to prioritise African methods.

There are many other methods that have not been listed, these include observation, experiment, simulation and. These methods are used every day in African communities but they are very few in social work and development research. The quality of research is not measured by how much we copy methods from outside Africa but by how relevant, contextual and decolonial our methods are. The list above provides some of the methods applicable in social work and social development, and it is up to academics, information professionals, administrators, students and organisations funding or commissioning research to ensure that these methods are valued and used.

Related

What are the key elements of African research?