How many and which systems make up IKS – indigenous knowledge systems?

Introduction

Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) are holistic frameworks through which communities understand, organise, and apply knowledge for survival, cultural identity, and continuity. The term “indigenous” can be understood at two levels. First, it refers to groups native to a specific community or country, such as the San in Botswana or the First Nations in Canada. Second, it refers to peoples native to a larger society or region, such as African, Pacific, or European indigenous communities. Indigenous knowledge systems are grounded in lived experiences, spirituality, and intergenerational learning, covering all aspects of life from the environment to governance, healing, and cosmology. Using an Ubuntu framework, IKS can be organised into five interrelated categories: family, community, societal, environmental, and spiritual.

I have identified 19 such systems, how many more can you add to this list?

Family knowledge systems

In indigenous contexts, families range from immediate nuclear families (parents and children living together and connected by genetics), to nuclear families (slightly broader units that may include grandparents with shared genetic ties), extended families (including multiple generations and relatives linked by both genetics and social obligations), tribal families (large kinship networks connected by lineage, clan, and ancestral genetics), and ethnic families (units defined by shared cultural, linguistic, and beliefs, as well as genetic heritage).

Family and identity knowledge system (Ukama, FIKS)

Ukama represents knowledge about kinship, ancestry, lineage, and personal identity. It encompasses understanding family roles, responsibilities, inheritance, and moral obligations that maintain family cohesion across generations. Among the Shona of Zimbabwe, ukama is expressed through respect for elders, family rituals, and naming practices. Similarly, in Native Hawaiian communities, ohana preserves genealogical knowledge and family identity, guiding social behaviour and individual roles within the family.

Education and apprenticeship system (EAKS)

Education and apprenticeship systems involve learning through observation, participation, storytelling, and initiation, ensuring holistic knowledge transmission across life stages. Among the Xhosa of South Africa, initiation schools (ulwaluko) provide moral, cultural, and practical education, while in Native Hawaiian communities, children learn fishing, farming, navigation, and cultural practices directly from elders and family members.

Community knowledge systems

Community knowledge system (Ujamaa, CKS)

Ujamaa refers to collective knowledge, shared responsibilities, and social solidarity within communities. It guides communal living, resource-sharing, conflict resolution, and cultural continuity. Among the Chagga of Tanzania, ujamaa manifests in collective farming, cooperative building projects, and community festivals that transmit values. Similarly, in Indigenous Māori communities in New Zealand, whānau and hapū structures embody communal knowledge, where decisions are made collectively and responsibilities are shared for the good of all members.

Community governance and conflict resolution system (CGCRS)

Community governance and conflict resolution systems involve customary laws, elders’ councils, and communal decision-making structures that prioritise dialogue and reconciliation. Among the Ashanti of Ghana, chiefs and elders mediate disputes using consensus-based methods. Similarly, the Maori of New Zealand rely on hapū councils and restorative practices to maintain social harmony and settle conflicts within their communities.

Societal knowledge systems

Economic and trade knowledge system (ETKS)

Economic and trade knowledge systems encompass barter, resource-sharing, and local trading networks that sustain communities and social cohesion. The Tuareg of the Sahara maintain caravan trade routes, navigating deserts and exchanging salt, grains, and crafts, while the Ainu of Japan historically traded furs, fish, and crafts within local networks to support their subsistence economy.

Language and communication knowledge system (LCKS)

Language and communication knowledge systems preserve and transmit knowledge through indigenous languages, signs, and symbolic codes. The Akan of Ghana use Adinkra symbols to represent proverbs and philosophical ideas, while the Ojibwe of North America rely on storytelling, oral language, and symbolic markings to pass on cultural teachings and social norms.

Artistic and oral knowledge system (AOKS)

Artistic and oral knowledge systems transmit knowledge, identity, and moral codes through songs, dances, proverbs, storytelling, and visual art. West African Griots preserve history, genealogy, and social memory through oral performance, while the Maori maintain knowledge through waiata (songs), haka, and carvings, which encode ancestral histories and cultural values.

Welfare and social security knowledge system (WSSKS)

This system encompasses community-based practices and mechanisms that ensure the wellbeing and support of individuals, particularly the vulnerable. It includes informal social safety nets, mutual aid, and collective responsibility practices that predate modern social security structures. In many African communities, such as among the Basotho of Lesotho, extended families provide care for orphaned children and support the elderly. Outside Africa, in rural Japan, moai groups act as informal financial and social support networks, helping members during illness or old age.

Political knowledge system (PKS)

This system refers to indigenous structures and practices governing leadership, decision-making, and communal governance. It incorporates councils, chieftaincies, and consensus-based processes that maintain social order and ensure equitable participation. In Africa, the Ashanti of Ghana rely on a council of elders to guide decisions and resolve disputes. Outside Africa, the Iroquois Confederacy in North America historically used a council of representatives from each nation to reach consensus on governance and inter-community matters.

Law and jurisprudence system (e.g Ubuntu laws)

Ubuntu laws represent a jurisprudential framework grounded in principles of mutual respect, reconciliation, and collective responsibility. This system codifies norms around conflict resolution, restitution, and restorative justice rather than punitive measures. In South Africa, the AmaXhosa use community councils to mediate disputes and restore social harmony. Outside Africa, among the Māori of New Zealand, whānau and hapū elders mediate conflicts, focusing on reconciliation and the restoration of relationships rather than punishment.

Historical and memory knowledge system (HMKS)

Historical and memory knowledge systems preserve communal history, genealogies, rituals, and lessons from the past, exemplified by the principle of Sankofa, which encourages retrieving past wisdom to inform the future. Shona bira ceremonies in Zimbabwe honour ancestors while transmitting moral guidance, and the Hopi of North America preserve historical memory through oral traditions, ceremonial dances, and clan histories that guide contemporary social life.

Futurism knowledge system (sankofa, FKS)

Futurism as a knowledge system involves planning for future generations, sustainability, and long-term thinking embedded in cultural practice. African examples include the Akan principle of considering seven generations ahead in decision-making, while Indigenous Australians use seasonal calendars to plan resource use and community activities across decades.

Environmental knowledge systems

Ecological and environmental knowledge system (EEKS)

Ecological and environmental knowledge systems encompass the knowledge of land, animals, water, and climate cycles, enabling sustainable use of natural resources and resilience in the face of environmental change. Among the Hadzabe of Tanzania, detailed observation of animal tracks, seasonal waterholes, and fruiting trees guides hunting and gathering practices. Similarly, the Inuit of the Arctic use knowledge of sea ice, weather patterns, and animal migration to survive in extreme conditions.

Agricultural and food systems knowledge (AFSK)

Agricultural and food systems knowledge includes traditional farming methods, food preservation, fishing practices, and seed selection, often designed to sustain communities over generations. The Shona of Zimbabwe practise intercropping of maize and legumes to maintain soil fertility and ensure diverse food sources, while the Hmong people in Southeast Asia cultivate swidden gardens and maintain seed diversity to adapt to mountainous terrain.

Health and healing knowledge system (HHKS)

Health and healing knowledge systems draw from medicinal plants, spiritual practices, and communal care, preserving extensive pharmacopeias and diagnostic methods. Among the Yoruba of Nigeria, herbal medicine and spiritual healing are widely used, while Native American communities, such as the Navajo, combine plant-based remedies with ceremonies and healing rituals to maintain health and spiritual balance.

Technological and craft knowledge system (TCKS)

Technological and craft knowledge systems involve innovation with local materials to produce dwellings, tools, clothing, dwellings, and artefacts, often with symbolic meaning. The Maasai of East Africa craft intricate beadwork that conveys identity and social status, while the Inuit create specialised tools and clothing from animal hides to survive harsh Arctic environments.

Astronomical and time-keeping knowledge system (ATKS)

Astronomical and time-keeping knowledge systems use observation of stars, moon cycles, and seasonal changes to guide agriculture, navigation, and rituals. The Dogon of Mali have detailed astronomical knowledge embedded in their cultural traditions, while the Polynesians in the Pacific navigate vast oceans using celestial bodies, currents, and wind patterns to reach distant islands.

Spiritual knowledge systems

Spiritual and cosmological knowledge system (SCKS)

Spiritual and cosmological knowledge systems provide ethical guidance and a sense of place in the universe through rituals, beliefs, and ancestral connections. The San of Southern Africa conduct trance dances to connect with the spirit world, promote healing, and strengthen community cohesion. In Australia, Aboriginal groups use Dreamtime stories to explain creation, natural laws, and social responsibilities, embedding spirituality into everyday life.

Dreams and visions knowledge system (DVKS)

Dreams and visions operate as knowledge systems that provide guidance, prophecy, or healing. Among the Zulu of South Africa, dreams are interpreted to warn, advise, or heal, while Native American groups such as the Lakota consider dreams central to spiritual insight, problem-solving, and leadership selection.

Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge systems are diverse, interconnected, and far-reaching, encompassing environmental, spiritual, social, technological, and historical domains. Using an Ubuntu framework highlights the relational and collective nature of these systems, showing how family, community, society, environment, and spiritual knowledge are deeply interwoven. Recognising multiple ways of knowing, including futurism, dreams, family, and community knowledge, emphasises that IKS are dynamic, bridging past, present, and future, and offering valuable insights for sustainable development, cultural preservation, and holistic well-being.